PowerMock examples and why better not to use them

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Post summary: In this post, I have summarised all PowerMock examples I’ve given so far. More important I will try to give some justification why I think necessity to use PowerMock is considered an indicator for a bad code design.

All code examples are available in GitHub java-samples/junit repository.

PowerMock

PowerMock is a framework that extends other mock libraries giving them more powerful capabilities. PowerMock uses a custom classloader and bytecode manipulation to enable mocking of static methods, constructors, final classes and methods, private methods, removal of static initializers and more.

PowerMock series

So far in my blog, I have written a lot for PowerMock. Even more than I have written for Mockito which actually deserves better attention. Post from PowerMock series are:

Why avoid PowerMock

I have worked on a project where PowerMock was not needed at all. We had 91.6% code coverage only with Mockito. Initially, it was 85% but when we utilized PITest we increased the code coverage. See more on PITest in Mutation testing for Java with PITest post. I also have worked on an old product where without PowerMock you cannot do decent unit testing. PowerMock was a must in order to achieve our goal of 80% code coverage. I can easily compare those two projects. The old one had large classes with lots of private methods and used lots of static methods. It was really hard to maintain that code. In this post, I’m not going to talk about SOLID because I do not consider myself a total expert on the subject. There are lots of discussions over the internet about pros and cons of static methods so everyone can decide personally. For me, I’ve come to a conclusion that necessity of using PowerMock in a project is an indicator for bad code design. In later projects, PowerMock is not used at all. If something cannot be unit tested with Mockito then the class is refactored.

How to avoid PowerMock

PowerMock features described here are related to static methods, public methods and creating new objects.

Mock or verify static methods

I’m not saying don’t use static methods, but they should be deterministic and not very complex. Not being able to verify static method was called is a little pain but most important is input and output of your method under test, what internal call it is doing is not that important.

Mock or call private methods

Private methods are not supposed to be tested at all. It is like they do not exist. If a class is complex enough so you have to call private methods or to test individually private methods then this class might be good to be split up.

Mock new object creation

Instead of creating the object in the class use dependency injection to provide it to the class from outside either via a constructor or via a setter. This was you can very easily test this class by injecting a mock.

Conclusion

This is a very controversial post. On one hand, I describe how to use PowerMock and what features it has, on the other hand, I state that you’d better not use it. PowerMock is extremely powerful and can do almost anything you need in your testing, but for me, the necessity of using PowerMock is an indicator of bad code design.

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Mock new object creation with PowerMock

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Post summary: How to control what objects are being instantiated when using PowerMock.

This post is part of PowerMock series examples. The code shown in examples below is available in GitHub java-samples/junit repository.

Mock new object creation

You might have a method which instantiates some object and works with it. This case could be very tricky to automate because you do not have any control over this newly created object. This is where PowerMock comes to help to allow you to control what object is being created by replacing it with an object you can control.

Code to test

Below is a simple method where a new object is being created inside a method that has to be unit tested.

public class PowerMockDemo {

	public Point publicMethod() {
		return new Point(11, 11);
	}
}

Unit test

What we want to achieve in the unit test is to control instantiation of new Point object so that it is replaced with an object we have control over. The first thing to do is to annotate unit test with @RunWith(PowerMockRunner.class) telling JUnit to use PowerMock runner and with @PrepareForTest(PowerMockDemo.class) telling PowerMock to get inside PowerMockDemo class and prepare it for mocking. Mocking is done with PowerMockito.whenNew(Point.class).withAnyArguments().thenReturn(mockPoint). It tells PowerMock when a new object from class Point is instantiated with whatever arguments to return mockPoint instead. It is possible to return different objects based on different arguments Point is created with withArguments() method. Full code is below:

import org.junit.Before;
import org.junit.Test;
import org.junit.runner.RunWith;
import org.powermock.api.mockito.PowerMockito;
import org.powermock.core.classloader.annotations.PrepareForTest;
import org.powermock.modules.junit4.PowerMockRunner;

import static org.hamcrest.CoreMatchers.is;
import static org.hamcrest.MatcherAssert.assertThat;
import static org.mockito.Mockito.mock;

@RunWith(PowerMockRunner.class)
@PrepareForTest(PowerMockDemo.class)
public class PowerMockDemoTest {

	private PowerMockDemo powerMockDemo;

	@Before
	public void setUp() {
		powerMockDemo = new PowerMockDemo();
	}

	@Test
	public void testMockNew() throws Exception {
		Point mockPoint = mock(Point.class);

		PowerMockito.whenNew(Point.class)
			.withAnyArguments().thenReturn(mockPoint);

		Point actualMockPoint = powerMockDemo.publicMethod();

		assertThat(actualMockPoint, is(mockPoint));
	}
}

Conclusion

PowerMock allows you to control want new objects are being created and replacing them with an object you have control over.

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Mock private method call with PowerMock

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Post summary: How to mock private method with PowerMock by using spy object.

This post is part of PowerMock series examples. The code shown in examples below is available in GitHub java-samples/junit repository.

Mock private method

In some cases, you may need to alter the behavior of private method inside the class you are unit testing. You will need to mock this private method and make it return what needed for the particular case. Since this private method is inside your class under test then mocking it is little more specific. You have to use spy object.

Spy object

A spy is a real object which mocking framework has access to. Spied objects are partially mocked objects. Some their methods are real some mocked. I would say use spy object with great caution because you do not really know what is happening underneath and whether are you actually testing your class or mocked version of it.

Code to be tested

Below is a simple code that has a private method which created new Point object based on given as argument one. This private method is used to demonstrate how private methods can be called in Call private method with PowerMock post. In the current example, there is also a public method which calls this private method with a Point object.

public class PowerMockDemo {

	public Point callPrivateMethod() {
		return privateMethod(new Point(1, 1));
	}

	private Point privateMethod(Point point) {
		return new Point(point.getX() + 1, point.getY() + 1);
	}
}

Unit test

What we want to achieve in the unit test is to mock private method so that each call to it returns an object we have control over. The first thing to do is to annotate unit test with @RunWith(PowerMockRunner.class) telling JUnit to use PowerMock runner and with @PrepareForTest(PowerMockDemo.class) telling PowerMock to get inside PowerMockDemo class and prepare it for mocking. Then a spy object has to be created with PowerMockito.spy(new PowerMockDemo()). Actually, this is real PowerMockDemo object, but PowerMock is spying on it. The mocking of the private method is done with following code: PowerMockito.doReturn(mockPoint).when(powerMockDemoSpy, “privateMethod”, anyObject()). When “privateMethod” is called with whatever object then return mockPoint which is actually a mocked object. The full code example is shown below:

import org.junit.Before;
import org.junit.Test;
import org.junit.runner.RunWith;
import org.powermock.api.mockito.PowerMockito;
import org.powermock.core.classloader.annotations.PrepareForTest;
import org.powermock.modules.junit4.PowerMockRunner;

import static org.hamcrest.CoreMatchers.is;
import static org.hamcrest.MatcherAssert.assertThat;
import static org.mockito.Matchers.anyObject;
import static org.mockito.Mockito.mock;

@RunWith(PowerMockRunner.class)
@PrepareForTest(PowerMockDemo.class)
public class PowerMockDemoTest {

	private PowerMockDemo powerMockDemoSpy;

	@Before
	public void setUp() {
		powerMockDemoSpy = PowerMockito.spy(new PowerMockDemo());
	}

	@Test
	public void testMockPrivateMethod() throws Exception {
		Point mockPoint = mock(Point.class);

		PowerMockito.doReturn(mockPoint)
			.when(powerMockDemoSpy, "privateMethod", anyObject());

		Point actualMockPoint = powerMockDemoSpy.callPrivateMethod();

		assertThat(actualMockPoint, is(mockPoint));
	}
}

Conclusion

PowerMock provides a way to mock private methods by using spy objects. Mockito also has spy objects, but they are not so powerful as PowerMock’s. One example is that PowerMock can spy on final objects.

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Call private method with PowerMock

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Post summary: How to invoke a private method with PowerMock.

This post is part of PowerMock series examples. The code shown in examples below is available in GitHub java-samples/junit repository.

Unit test private method

Mainly public methods are being tested, so it is a very rare case where you want to unit test a private method. PowerMock provides utilities that can invoke private methods via a reflection and get output which can be tested.

Code to be tested

Below is a sample code that shows a class with a private method in it. It does nothing else but increases the X and Y coordinates of given as argument Point.

public class PowerMockDemo {

	private Point privateMethod(Point point) {
		return new Point(point.getX() + 1, point.getY() + 1);
	}
}

Unit test

Assume that this private method has to be unit tested for some reason. In order to do so, you have to use PowerMock’s Whitebox.invokeMethod(). You give an instance of the object, method name as a String and arguments to call the method with. In the example below argument is new Point(11, 11).

import org.junit.Before;
import org.junit.Test;
import org.powermock.reflect.Whitebox;

import static org.hamcrest.CoreMatchers.is;
import static org.hamcrest.MatcherAssert.assertThat;

public class PowerMockDemoTest {

	private PowerMockDemo powerMockDemo;

	@Before
	public void setUp() {
		powerMockDemo = new PowerMockDemo();
	}

	@Test
	public void testCallPrivateMethod() throws Exception {
		Point actual = Whitebox.invokeMethod(powerMockDemo, 
			"privateMethod", new Point(11, 11));

		assertThat(actual.getX(), is(12));
		assertThat(actual.getY(), is(12));
	}
}

Conclusion

PowerMock provides utilities which uses reflection to do certain things, as shown in the example above to invoke a private method.

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Verify static method was called with PowerMock

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Post summary: How to verify that static method was called during a unit test with PowerMock.

This post is part of PowerMock series examples. The code shown in examples below is available in GitHub java-samples/junit repository.

In Mock static methods in JUnit with PowerMock example post, I have given information about PowerMock and how to mock a static method. In the current post, I will demonstrate how to verify given static method was called during execution of a unit test.

Example class for unit test

We are going to unit test a class called LocatorService that internally uses a static method from utility class Utils. Method randomDistance(int distance) in Utils is returning random variable, hence it has no predictable behavior and the only way to test it is by mocking it:

public class LocatorService {

	public Point generatePointWithinDistance(Point point, int distance) {
		return new Point(point.getX() + Utils.randomDistance(distance), 
			point.getY() + Utils.randomDistance(distance));
	}
}

And Utils class is:

import java.util.Random;

public final class Utils {

	private static final Random RAND = new Random();

	private Utils() {
		// Utilities class
	}

	public static int randomDistance(int distance) {
		return RAND.nextInt(distance + distance) - distance;
	}
}

Nota bene: it is good code design practice to make utility classes final and with a private constructor.

Verify static method call

This is the full code. Additional details are shown below it.

package com.automationrhapsody.junit;

import org.junit.Before;
import org.junit.Test;
import org.junit.runner.RunWith;
import org.mockito.internal.verification.VerificationModeFactory;
import org.powermock.api.mockito.PowerMockito;
import org.powermock.core.classloader.annotations.PrepareForTest;
import org.powermock.modules.junit4.PowerMockRunner;

@RunWith(PowerMockRunner.class)
@PrepareForTest(Utils.class)
public class LocatorServiceTest {

	private LocatorService locatorServiceUnderTest;

	@Before
	public void setUp() {
		PowerMockito.mockStatic(Utils.class);

		locatorServiceUnderTest = new LocatorService();
	}

	@Test
	public void testStaticMethodCall() {
		locatorServiceUnderTest
			.generatePointWithinDistance(new Point(11, 11), 1);
		locatorServiceUnderTest
			.generatePointWithinDistance(new Point(11, 11), 234);

		PowerMockito.verifyStatic(VerificationModeFactory.times(2));
		Utils.randomDistance(1);

		PowerMockito.verifyStatic(VerificationModeFactory.times(2));
		Utils.randomDistance(234);

		PowerMockito.verifyNoMoreInteractions(Utils.class);
	}
}

Explanation

Class containing static method should be prepared for mocking with PowerMockito.mockStatic(Utils.class) code. Then call to static method is done inside locatorServiceUnderTest .generatePointWithinDistance() method. In this test, it is intentionally called 2 times with different distance (1 and 234) in order to show the verification which consists of two parts. First part is PowerMockito.verifyStatic(VerificationModeFactory.times(2)) which tells PowerMock to verify static method was called 2 times. The second part is Utils.randomDistance(1) which tells exactly which static method should be verified. Instead of 1 in the brackets you can use anyInt() or anyObject(). 1 is used to make verification explicit. As you can see there is second verification that randomDistance() method was called with 234 as well: PowerMockito.verifyStatic(VerificationModeFactory.times(2)); Utils.randomDistance(234);.

Conclusion

PowerMock provides additional power to Mockito mocking library which is described in Mock JUnit tests with Mockito example post. In the current post, I have shown how to verify static method was called. It is very specific as verification actually consists of two steps.

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Mock static methods in JUnit with PowerMock example

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Post summary: Examples how to mock static methods in JUnit tests with PowerMock.

This post is part of PowerMock series examples. The code shown in examples below is available in GitHub java-samples/junit repository.

In Mock JUnit tests with Mockito example post, I have shown how and why to use Mockito java mocking framework to create good unit tests. There are several things that Mockito is not supporting, but one of them is mocking of static methods. It is not that common to encounter such situation is real life, but the moment you encounter it Mockito is not able to solve the task. This is where PowerMock comes to the rescue.

PowerMock

PowerMock is a framework that extends other mock libraries giving them more powerful capabilities. PowerMock uses a custom classloader and bytecode manipulation to enable mocking of static methods, constructors, final classes and methods, private methods, removal of static initializers and more.

Example class for unit test

We are going to unit test a class called LocatorService that internally uses a static method from utility class Utils. Method randomDistance(int distance) in Utils is returning random variable, hence it has no predictable behavior and the only way to test it is by mocking it:

public class LocatorService {

	public Point generatePointWithinDistance(Point point, int distance) {
		return new Point(point.getX() + Utils.randomDistance(distance), 
			point.getY() + Utils.randomDistance(distance));
	}
}

And Utils class is:

import java.util.Random;

public final class Utils {

	private static final Random RAND = new Random();

	private Utils() {
		// Utilities class
	}

	public static int randomDistance(int distance) {
		return RAND.nextInt(distance + distance) - distance;
	}
}

Nota bene: it is good code design practice to make utility classes final and with a private constructor.

Using PowerMock

In order to use PowerMock two things has to be done:

  1. Import PowerMock into the project
  2. Annotate unit test class
  3. Mock the static class

Import PowerMock into the project

In case of using Maven import statement is:

<dependency>
	<groupId>org.powermock</groupId>
	<artifactId>powermock-module-junit4</artifactId>
	<version>1.6.5</version>
	<scope>test</scope>
</dependency>
<dependency>
	<groupId>org.powermock</groupId>
	<artifactId>powermock-api-mockito</artifactId>
	<version>1.6.5</version>
	<scope>test</scope>
</dependency>

Nota bene: there is a possibility of version mismatch between PowerMock and Mockito. I’ve received: java.lang.NoSuchMethodError: org.mockito.mock.MockCreationSettings.isUsingConstructor()Z exception when using PowerMock 1.6.5 with Mockito 1.9.5, so I had to upgrade to Mockito 1.10.19.

Annotate JUnit test class

Two annotations are needed. One is to run unit test with PowerMockRunner: @RunWith(PowerMockRunner.class). Other is to prepare Utils class for testing: @PrepareForTest({Utils.class}). The final code is:

import org.junit.runner.RunWith;
import org.powermock.core.classloader.annotations.PrepareForTest;
import org.powermock.modules.junit4.PowerMockRunner;

@RunWith(PowerMockRunner.class)
@PrepareForTest({Utils.class})
public class LocatorServiceTest {
}

Mock static class

Explicit mocking to static class should be made in order to be able to use standard Mockito when().thenReturn() construction:

int distance = 111;
PowerMockito.mockStatic(Utils.class);
when(Utils.randomDistance(anyInt())).thenReturn(distance);

Putting it all together

Final JUnit test class is shown below. The code in tests verifies logic in LocatorService, if a point is given then new point is returned by adding random to its X and Y coordinates. By removing the random element with mocking code can be tested with specific values.

package com.automationrhapsody.junit;

import org.junit.Before;
import org.junit.Test;
import org.junit.runner.RunWith;
import org.powermock.api.mockito.PowerMockito;
import org.powermock.core.classloader.annotations.PrepareForTest;
import org.powermock.modules.junit4.PowerMockRunner;

import static org.junit.Assert.assertTrue;
import static org.mockito.Matchers.anyInt;
import static org.mockito.Mockito.when;

@RunWith(PowerMockRunner.class)
@PrepareForTest({Utils.class})
public class LocatorServiceTest {

	private LocatorService locatorServiceUnderTest;

	@Before
	public void setUp() {
		PowerMockito.mockStatic(Utils.class);

		locatorServiceUnderTest = new LocatorService();
	}

	@Test
	public void testGeneratePointWithinDistance() {
		int distance = 111;

		when(Utils.randomDistance(anyInt())).thenReturn(distance);

		Point input = new Point(11, 11);
		Point expected = new Point(input.getX() + distance, 
				input.getY() + distance);

		assertTrue(arePointsEqual(expected, 
			locatorServiceUnderTest.generatePointWithinDistance(input, 1)));
	}

	public static boolean arePointsEqual(Point p1, Point p2) {
		return p1.getX() == p2.getX()
			&& p1.getY() == p2.getY();
	}
}

Conclusion

PowerMock is a powerful addition to standard mocking libraries as Mockito. Using it has some specifics, but once you understand them it is easy and fun to use it. Keep in mind that if you encounter a need to use PowerMock that can mean that code under test is not well designed. In my experience, it is possible to have very good unit tests with more than 85% coverage without any PowerMock usage. Still, there are some exceptional cases where PowerMock can be put in operation.

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Mock JUnit tests with Mockito example

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Post summary: Why mocking is needed in unit testing and how to do it with Mockito.

Unit testing

By definition, unit testing is a process in which the smallest testable parts of an application, called units, are individually and independently tested for proper operation. Smallest testable unit in Java is a method. Public methods are the only one exposed to outside world, so only they are subject to unit testing.

Mocking

Unit tests focus on a particular piece of code that needs to be exercised. In most of the cases, this code relies on external dependencies. Those dependencies have to be controlled, so only code under test is exercised. Removing dependencies is done with a test double. Test doubles are objects that look and behave like their release-intended counterparts but are actually simplified versions of them which reduce the complexity and facilitate testing. Test doubles are fakes, stubs, and mocks.

Mockito

Mockito is the most famous mocking framework for Java. It provides all mocking features needed for proper unit testing, except mocking of static methods. Static methods can be mocked with PowerMock. It is a Mockito’s wrapper that provides same API plus static method mocking and other features. In PowerMock examples and why better not to use them post, I have shown how to use PowerMock and its features.

Example class for unit test

Code shown in examples below is available in GitHub java-samples/junit repository. We are going to unit test a class called Locator that internally uses another class LocatorService:

public class Locator {

	private final LocatorService locatorService;

	public Locator(LocatorService locatorService) {
		this.locatorService = locatorService;
	}

	public Point locate(int x, int y) {
		if (x < 0 || y < 0) {
			return new Point(Math.abs(x), Math.abs(y));
		} else {
			return locatorService.geoLocate(new Point(x, y));
		}
	}
}

The example above is pretty simple. If we pass point with some negative coordinates method locate() returns point with positive coordinates. If coordinates are positive then search via LocatorService is done. This class represents some external API that our code is calling. Since there is no control over this API and internal structure is not know it should be mocked in the unit tests. As stated above unit tests are focused on a specific piece of code, a unit.

Initialising a mock

As described in Mockito’s documentation a way to mock some object is: List mockedList = mock(List.class); Another way, that is used in current examples is to annotate the filed that is going to be mocked with @Mock and annotate JUnit test class with @RunWith(MockitoJUnitRunner.class). In this way Mockito runner does the initialization behind the scenes:

@RunWith(MockitoJUnitRunner.class)
public class LocatorTest {

	@Mock
	private LocatorService locatorServiceMock;
}

Control mock’s behavior

The whole idea of having a mock is to be able to control its behavior. If mock is called it should respond in a predictable manner. This is done with when() method:

when(locatorServiceMock.geoLocate(any(Point.class)))
	.thenReturn(new Point(11, 11)); 

When mock’s geoLocate() method is being called with any given point object it always returns new Point with coordinates X=11 and Y=11. If this is not enough, more elaborate scenarios can be used:

when(locatorServiceMock.geoLocate(new Point(5, 5))).thenReturn(new Point(50, 50));
when(locatorServiceMock.geoLocate(new Point(1, 1))).thenReturn(new Point(11, 11));

If locator class is called with a point with coordinates (5, 5) then new point with coordinates (50, 50) is returned. If mock is called with a point with coordinates (1, 1) then point with (11, 11) is returned. In any other cases, null is returned by default.

Nota bene: in order to work properly object used to call the mocked method (Point is the current example) should have properly implemented equals() method otherwise java.lang.Object‘s equals() method is used, which just compared the references. Examples above will not work, as Point doesn’t have equals() method properly overridden.

Depending on tests that have to be conducted more precise control over mock’s response could be needed. This is done with thenAnswer() mock’s method:

when(locatorServiceMock.geoLocate(any(Point.class)))
	.thenAnswer(new Answer<Point>() {
		@Override
		public Point answer(InvocationOnMock invocationOnMock) throws Throwable {
			Object[] args = invocationOnMock.getArguments();
			Point caller = (Point) args[0];
			
			if (caller.getX() == 5 && caller.getY() == 5) {
				return new Point(50, 50);
			} else if (caller.getX() == 1 && caller.getY() == 1) {
				return new Point(11, 11);
			} else {
				return null;
			}
		}
	});

Call to invocationOnMock.getArguments() returns array with arguments that mock’s geoLocate() method was called with. In the current example, it is only one argument from type Point, so it is cast and saved to new Point object inside caller variable. If coordinates are (5, 5) then new point with coordinates (50, 50) are returned. If coordinates on input are (1, 1) then new point (11, 11) is returned. In all other cases, null is returned.

Verify mock was interacted with

In order to verify execution path is correct, Mockito provides a way to check if a certain method on the mock has been called and how many times. This is done with verify() method. To confirm no more methods are called on this specific mock instance then verifyNoMoreInteractions() is used:

verify(locatorServiceMock, times(1)).geoLocate(new Point(1, 1));

verifyNoMoreInteractions(locatorServiceMock);

The example above verifies that mock’s geoLocate() method was called with a specific point with coordinates (1, 1). If it is not important which object is passed to the method then any(Point.class) can be used.

Nota bene: the example above will not work as there is no equals() method implemented on point class, so Mockito is using java.lang.Object’s equals() method by default that compares only the references. Point class is intentionally left without equals method to demonstrate how such situations can be solved. How to solve this obstacle is shown in Assert Mockito mock method arguments if no equals() method implemented post.

Putting it all together

All snippets above are put together is one simple unit test that covers all the possible paths for Locator’s locate() method, but obviously not all the test conditions:

import org.junit.Before;
import org.junit.Test;
import org.junit.runner.RunWith;
import org.mockito.Mock;
import org.mockito.runners.MockitoJUnitRunner;

import static org.junit.Assert.assertEquals;
import static org.junit.Assert.assertTrue;
import static org.mockito.Matchers.any;
import static org.mockito.Mockito.when;

@RunWith(MockitoJUnitRunner.class)
public class LocatorTest {

	private static final Point TEST_POINT = new Point(11, 11);

	@Mock
	private LocatorService locatorServiceMock;

	private Locator locatorUnderTest;

	@Before
	public void setUp() {
		when(locatorServiceMock.geoLocate(any(Point.class)))
			.thenReturn(TEST_POINT);

		locatorUnderTest = new Locator(locatorServiceMock);
	}

	@Test
	public void testLocateWithServiceResult() {
		assertEquals(TEST_POINT, locatorUnderTest.locate(1, 1));
	}

	@Test
	public void testLocateLocalResult() {
		Point expected = new Point(1, 1);
		assertTrue(arePointsEqual(expected, locatorUnderTest.locate(-1, -1)));
	}

	private boolean arePointsEqual(Point p1, Point p2) {
		return p1.getX() == p2.getX()
			&& p1.getY() == p2.getY();
	}
}

When locatorServiceMock is called with any then TEST_POINT is returned. No matter that Point has no equals() method defined, assertEquals() in testLocateWithServiceResult() passes because code refers one and the same object. Helper method arePointsEqual() is needed in testLocateLocalResult() though. Code coverage report in IntelliJ IDEA is:

Mockito-JUnit-results

Optimise

Next step is to improve test coverage by adding more unit tests. Copy/paste is not an option, so in post Data driven testing with JUnit parameterized tests I have described how to make data-driven tests in JUnit.

Conclusion

Mocking is mandatory when developing unit tests. Mockito is a convenient mocking library for Java. It is possible to control what mock returns if called with whatever value or if called with a specific value. Mockito allows verification on which of mock’s methods has been called and how many times.

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